Synthetic aspects
There are three synthetic aspects in this language.- Imperfective is unmarked; it expresses that described activity is not performed.
[wolf forest-LOC-in FEM-go]
[bót͡so sɯ́nax so iɟá]
She-wolf walks in the woods.
Naánga naangúmas dẓúiguil tálten.
[king kingdom-GEN enemy-PL-COM MASC-fight-PST]
[náːŋa naːŋúmas d͡ʒújgu.il tálten]
The king fought against enemies of the kingdom.
Inoóhag métsti táltesat.
[FEM-bad-PASS power MASC-fight-FUT-PERF]
[inóːhag mét͡sti táltesat]
Bad power will be overcome.
Tṣaám jiinár báṣat na du.
[bear cow-DAT brother no MASC-be]
[t͡ʃáːm ɟiːnár báʃat na du]
Bear is not brother to a cow.
- Perfective is marked with suffix -(a)t; it means that described activity is performed or completed.
[big.bird 1.SG-POSS-ACC dog-ACC MASC-die-CAUS-PST-PERF]
[t͡sʰuwaːb meram ɬéːkʰam lúd͡ɮanat]
A big bird killed my dog.
Mera łeékha tshúuaabar lúgadlat.
[1.SG-POSS dog big.bird-DAT MASC-die-PASS.CAUS-PERF]
[mera ɬéːkʰa t͡sʰúwaːbar ilúgad͡ɮat]
My dog was killed by a big bird.
Baaghúm neekhém-na dátłh hoo dunat.
[city earth-ACC-to MASC-burn PARTICIPLE MASC-be-PST-PERF]
[baːɰúm neːkʰém na dát͡ɬʰ hoo dunat]
The city was burned to the ground.
Caánam-na jasat.
[house-ACC-to MASC-go-FUT-PERF]
[cáːnam na ɟasat]
We'll go home.
- Perfect is marked with suffix -(a)ṣ-; it means that described action have or will have a result.
[MASC-bad-PASS wolf MASC-die-CAUS-PRFC]
[nóːhag bót͡so lúd͡ɮaʃ]
The bad wolf has been killed.
Daánte thólinaṣ.
[animal MASC-field-DENOM-PST-PRFC]
[dáːnte tʰólinaʃ]
The animal had been hunted.
Med iam lásdamaim déras cólum-na lásdasaṣ.
[1.PL this.here letter-PL-ACC day-GEN end-ACC-to MASC-write-FUT-PRFC]
[med jam lásdana.im déras cólum na lásdasaʃ]
We will have written these letters by the end of the day.
Derivational aspects
- Inchoative ~ Inceptive aspect is marked with suffix -(a)j-; it expresses a beginning of an activity or starting point of action.
[child MASC-go-INCH]
[bɯcʰá ɟaɟ]
The child is starting to walk.
Tuáru iduj.
[skin FEM-be-INCH]
[tu.áru iduɟ]
The skin starts to turn red.
Seélo itáltejanat.
[army FEM-fight-INCH-PST-PERF]
[séːlo itálteɟanat]
The army began to fight.
- Cessative aspect is marked with suffix -(a)sta-; it expresses a final point of an activity.
[this.here man king-as MASC-be-CESS]
[ja tʰáme náːŋa ak dústa]
This man ceases to be a king.
Naánga táltesta.
[king MASC-fight-CESS]
[náːŋa táltesta]
The king stops fighting.
Tłághiḥ-tah, neekhé khoórasta.
[rain-LOC-after dog MASC-become.dry-CESS]
[t͡ɬáɰix tah neːkʰé kʰóːrasta]
After the rain, the ground ceases to be dry.
- Intensive aspect is marked with suffix -(a)cí-; it expresses an intensity and activity with more force.
[father tree-ACC MASC-hit-INTENS]
[háːt t͡sidúm ɟokcí]
Father hit the tree hard.
Dzála tar thámer ilukcídl.
[woman that-DAT man-DAT FEM-die-INTENS-PASS.CAUS]
[d͡zála tar tʰámer ilukcíd͡ɮ]
The woman was murdered by that man.
Naánga seras naangúmas múiruti taltecín.
[king REFL.PRON-GEN kingdom-GEN freedom MASC-fight-INTENS-PST]
[náːŋa seras naːŋúmas mújruti taltecín]
The king fought hard for the freedom of his kingdom.
Aspectual constructions.
- Habitual aspect has periphrastic construction: gerund in imperfective aspect + dúh 'to be'. It expresses an regular activity, acting off and on.
[this.here man forest-ACC-to go-GER MASC-be]
[ja tʰáme sɯ́nam na ɟáni du]
This man was going to the forest.
Han tsidútṣ tsidúm-na jáni dun.
[3.SG tree-ABL tree-ACC-to go-GER MASC-be-PST]
[han t͡sidút͡ʃ t͡sidúm na ɟáni dun]
He walked (regularly/many times) from tree to tree.
Łeékhas thóluim-tah jáni dus.
[dog-GEN field-PL-ACC-after go-GER MASC-be-FUT]
[ɬéːkʰa tʰólu.im tah ɟáni dus]
The dog will be walking (regularly) in the fields.
Dédeene uéjus gýli nákkani du.
[Supreme.God world-GEN fire-INSTR destroy-GER MASC-be]
[dédeːne wéɟus gɯ́li nákkani du]
The Supreme God regularly destroys the world with fire.
Uéju gýli nákkani du.
[world fire-INSTR destroy-GER MASC-be]
[wéɟu gɯ́li nákkani du]
The world is regularly destroyed by fire.
- Iterative or repetitive aspect has periphrastic construction with adverb néṣgatṣ 'anew'. It expresses a repetition.
[wolf eat-GER-for again MASC-fight]
[bót͡o hídeni liː néʃgat͡ʃ tálte]
The wolf is fighting for food again.
Dundará dundátam-na néṣgatṣ ja.
[warrior war-ACC-to again MASC-go]
[dundará dundátam na néʃgat͡ʃ ɟa]
The warrior goes to war again.
Łeékha bótsom néṣgatṣ cóltahasat.
[dog wolf-ACC again end-after-FUT-PERF]
[ɬéːkʰa bót͡som néʃgat͡ʃ cóltahasat]
The dog will defeat the wolf again.
Bótso łeékhar néṣgatṣ cóltahgasat.
[wolf dog-DAT again end-after-PASS-FUT-PERF]
[bót͡so ɬéːkʰar néʃgat͡ʃ cóltahgasat]
The wolf will be defeated again by the dog.
- Continuative aspect has periphrastic construction with adverb taámna 'still'. It expresses a continuation of described activity.
[field-PL still MASC.PL-become.green-PASS]
[tʰólud táːmna banót͡ɬarag]
The fields are still green.
Naángas thámed taámna tálte.
[king-GEN man-PL still MASC-fight]
[náːŋas tʰámed táːmna tálte]
The king's men are still fighting.
Ias dzálas khaán pulním taámna moólan.
[this.here-GEN woman-GEN vodka-ACC still MASC-drink-PST]
[jas d͡zálas kʰáːn pulním táːmna móːlan]
The son of this woman still drunk vodka.
Haad taámna jókas, dẓúigus cóltahanim-na.
[3.PL still MASC-hit-FUT enemy-GEN end-after-GER-ACC-to]
[haːd táːmna ɟókas d͡ʒújgus cóltahanim na]
They will continue to hit until they defeat the enemy.
- Defective aspect has periphrastic construction with adverb naltṣéli 'almost'. It expresses an action that has almost been made.
[horseman almost REFL.PRON MASC-die-CAUS horse-ABL fall-PERF-GER]
[ɰuːrrá nalt͡ʃéli se lúd͡ɮ ɰúːrat͡ʃ t͡ɬʰádatni]
The rider nearly killed himself by falling off his horse.
Báṣat iam boḥé hanar naltṣéli gúdnat.
[brother this.here thing 3.SG-DAT almost MASC-give-PST-PERF]
[báʃat jam boxe hanar nalt͡ʃéli gúdnat]
Brother almost gave him this thing.
Keétku hanram tuárem naltṣéli keétnat.
[knife 3.SG-POSS-ACC skin-ACC almost MASC-cut-PST-PERF]
[kéːtku hanram tu.árem nalt͡ʃéli kéːtnat]
The knife nearly cut his skin.
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